• 6.1 Education Status
• 6.2 Individual Costs
• 6.3 Society Costs - Education Related Subsidies, Services and Benefits
• Footnotes

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This section discusses the costs of blindness associated with education and training. The section begins by reviewing the education status of blind and vision impaired people and the education related costs of blindness previously identified in the literature. Individual and society costs of blindness are then examined.

As previously noted, some data on the cost of government provided education services to blind and vision impaired students was not available for this research (please refer to the separate document on this issue 'Data Collection Issues Encountered During the RNZFB Costs of Blindness Research'). Nor has data on the total population of blind or visually impaired people in education or training been made available for this research.

In order to expand costs reported in the RNZFB Costs of Blindness survey, an estimate of 850 blind and vision impaired students (from primary through to tertiary education) has been generated using information from the VEA and Disability Support Services at the University of Auckland. This population base figure is used throughout this section.

6.1 Education Status

6.1.1 Levels of Education

The Statistics New Zealand Disability Survey (2001) provides a recent indication of levels of education amongst blind and vision impaired persons. The survey asked adults living in households what level of education they had attained and grouped responses according to no qualification, school qualification, post-school qualification and not elsewhere included (Statistics NZ, 2003).

Of the 69,200 blind and vision impaired adults, 30% had no qualification, 25% had attained school qualifications and 16% had attained post-school qualifications. Males were more likely to attain post-school qualifications (20% of total males).

Of the blind population, 25% had no qualification, 38% had school qualifications and only 4% had post-school qualifications. Of the vision impaired population, 30% had no qualification, 24% had school qualifications, and 17% had post-school qualifications.

In comparison to the total New Zealand population, the share of blind and vision impaired adults with no qualification was higher than the national average (24%). Slightly more than a third of New Zealanders indicated that they had school qualifications (34%) meaning the blind and vision impaired populations are significantly under represented in this group. Approximately 28% of New Zealanders had post school qualifications; this share is significantly higher than the reported 4% for blind adults and 17% for vision impaired adults.

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6.1.2 Costs of Blindness Related to Education

Previous research has discussed the costs of blindness related to education. These costs constitute a range of barriers to education faced by the blind or vision impaired student.

The difficulty of engaging in an education process primarily structured around the written word, as well as visual references, has been widely discussed as a major obstacle faced by the blind or vision impaired student (La Grow & Good, 2003; RNIB, 2000; Newbold, 1987). Financial costs can include the need for special equipment and technology (RNIB, 2000), and the need to convert course materials into accessible formats (RNIB, 2000). Undertaking tertiary education also requires the vision impaired individual to achieve a very high level of organisation and time management as well as requiring additional time to read course materials and prepare for classes (La Grow & Good, 2003).

Opportunity costs can include restrictions on the types of subjects which are accessible to the blind or vision impaired student. Newbold (1987) notes a tendency for students to take social science and humanities courses due to the additional difficulty blind and vision impaired have with mathematical and science based disciplines.

La Grow & Good (2003) argue that more supportive systems and infrastructure within learning institutions have resulted in a more accessible environment for blind and vision impaired students. Improvements identified include: increased availability of paid and voluntary readers; closed circuit television systems; larger computer screens and auditory and tactile output systems; Brailled, enlarged or taped textbooks; the provision of course and assessment materials formats; and, an increased flexibility in learning and teaching processes. The authors note, however, that blind and vision impaired students still experience a high dropout rate after the first year of tertiary study (La Grow & Good, 2003). Hodges & Keller (1999) note a similar situation for blind and vision impaired tertiary students in America. Both studies identify a range of difficulties and costs experienced by blind and vision impaired students in order to successfully complete tertiary studies. These include the need to develop many skills in addition to academic ones, for example, independent living, travel, time and money management and communication. Transportation and mobility issues can provide additional difficulties such as reduced time efficiency, lessened opportunities for social involvement, more limited accommodation choices and restricted ability to move easily around the campus (Hodges & Keller, 1999).

Both studies note that blind and vision impaired students who successfully achieve both social and academic integration on campus are more likely to successfully complete their tertiary education (La Grow & Good, 2003, Hodges & Keller, 1999). However, it is recognised that blind and vision impaired students face considerable challenges in achieving social integration. Students can become isolated on campus yet also need to have the confidence and skills to advocate for their needs and to initiate contact with lecturers and others. Socialisation can be further hampered by transportation and mobility

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issues and the limited extent to which resources and material associated with campus activities and events are provided in accessible formats (Hodges & Keller, 1999).

6.2 Individual Costs

6.3 Time Costs

Time Spent Studying

On average, students in the current research report spending 374 minutes per day studying. This includes time attending lectures and classes as well as individual study. Blind females spend more time studying (452 minutes per day) and blind males under 18 years the least (280 minutes per day).

Of this total time, students estimate an average of 48 minutes per day are 'additional' minutes required because of their blindness or vision impairment (refer also: La Grow & Good, 2003). The additional hours required for study increase with the level of education undertaken. On average, secondary students report an additional 39 minutes per day, polytechnic students 69 minutes and university students 81 minutes.

Time Spent Traveling for Study

The time required to plan and undertake travel to and from the place of study is also examined. Public transport is the most common form of transport used (42%), with walking (25%), someone else's car (17%), taxis (13%), and the school bus (4%) also identified.

Students report an average of 47 minutes per day spent travelling to and from their place of study. Students in urban locations (57 minutes per day) spend more time travelling on average than students in provincial locations (46 minutes per day), who in turn spend more time travelling than students in rural locations (on average 34 minutes per day).

Table 9 presents a total cost of time spent by blind and vision impaired students in relation to education and training, this includes both time spent studying and time spent travelling to and from place of study. The total time cost estimated is $47,865 based on a blind and vision impaired student population estimate of 850.

Table 9: Annual Education related time cost to the individual and society (blind and vision impaired student estimate)

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Time Spent Organising and Planning

Students participating in the focus group discussion reported needing to be highly organised in their planning and time management in order to complete their study requirements (refer also: La Grow & Good, 2003; Hodges & Keller, 1999). The need to be proactive in initiating contact with teachers and communicating specific needs is also noted. One student comments:

"I found that I have to go to the tutor the day before, to make sure I have [the notes] all enlarged for me. I had to be really outgoing, which I am not very. I found it really hard coming up with the courage to go up and ask them, even though it's their job." (Male Youth)

Other Time Costs

While not quantified, student respondents also note the time spent undertaking mobility training on campus. This involves learning how to get to buildings that will be used, such as libraries, disability support offices, lecture rooms and cafeterias.

Parents of Vision impaired Children

Identifying, applying for, and ensuring access to available education funding is reported to be time consuming for parents of vision impaired children. Parents also report the need to spend additional time within schools to ensure that teachers fully understand the needs of their child. This can include ensuring that their child receives their rightful entitlements, for example the allowance of additional time during examinations.

With mainstreaming, parents can feel an increased need to spend time within schools as mainstream teachers can be seen as less likely to fully appreciate the needs of their vision impaired child. One parent notes that each new teacher their child has can require more time to be spent within the school:

"My daughter had a new Social Studies teacher and she said, 'I can't see the board' and [the teacher] said, 'I am older than you. If I can see it, you can see it'. All your hard work [is] just gone." (Mother of Vision impaired Child)

6.2.2 Financial Costs

Students

Three students report primarily travelling to their place of study by taxi. One of these respondents reports spending an average of $156.00 a week on this travel. Cost data was not provided by the other two respondents.

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Other financial costs identified by survey respondents but not quantified include the cost of accessible format conversion (identified by 23% of student respondents), the cost of staying on or near campus and the cost of increased internet use.

Parents of Vision impaired Children

Parents of vision impaired children strive for their children to have access to the best educational opportunities possible. This includes appropriate access to support and assistance, for example, access to adaptive technology. Parents may feel best positioned to understand their child's development and learning needs, in turn feeling most able to understand their child's needs for adaptive equipment and other support. In this context, the timing of available funding and eligibility criteria may not always be seen as appropriately aligned to their children's requirements. In such situations, rather than waiting for available funding and provision, some parents report feeling compelled to purchase necessary equipment themselves. Comments include:

"They fund, but they fund too late. We had bought a computer and two years later they bought the computer and then they wouldn't refund the one that we bought so we have two of the damned things." (Father of Vision impaired Child)

"What do we do? Do we pay the money now and let her get on and do what she will be at school doing, or do we sit around and wait for funding? Of course the answer is that we had the money, so we did it [but] you are never going to get that money reimbursed." (Mother of Vision impaired Child)

To make up for the more limited range of books available to blind or vision impaired children, parents also report enlarging books or constructing reading resources themselves. Personal costs in time and money are again incurred. Parents also report being required to pay for personal training in adaptive equipment if they wish to enhance their ability to help their child's studies at home. Parents may also feel compelled to personally fund additional teacher support if they feel their child is having learning difficulties and not keeping up within the mainstream setting.

Because of the need to provide more than a visual function, toys providing educational value for vision impaired children can be more expensive than 'standard' toys. For example, an audible function is required to enhance the child's ability to interact with the toy and therefore the educational value received from it:

"You can sell that to sighted kids in their stocking at Christmas, [stuff] from the $2 Shop. But you can't do that with a vision impaired child: it means nothing to them. It has to give them some sort of feedback." (Mother of Vision impaired Child)

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6.2.3 Opportunity Costs

Blind and vision impaired students report facing many opportunity costs throughout their experience in the education system, and the challenge of reaching their full academic potential is commonly discussed.

Practical difficulties include the inconvenience of transporting Braille text books to and from school and the limited portability of some adaptive equipment from the classroom to the home environment, thereby compromising the extent to which learning can be continued at home. Restricted access to adaptive equipment used in the classroom may also restrict the extent to which parents can contribute to their child's learning within the home environment. One parent comments further on this:

"We have heard another child in Wellington plead with his RTV to be allowed to take [a Mountbatten Braille Writer] home over the holidays... [the child] was a gifted writer and he was not allowed to have his pencil and paper at home." (Mother of Vision impaired Child)

Parents who are themselves vision impaired report difficulties or inability to assist their children with their homework. This can result in a greater burden on other siblings to help out as well as potentially further disadvantaging the blind and vision impaired child in their schooling.

Difficulties accessing the 'tools' of learning taken for granted by others are discussed by students. The difficulty in using or inability to use visual references such as graphs and diagrams is particularly noted. Visual references play a central role in education and the inability to access these constitutes a significant learning disadvantage (refer also: La Grow & Good, 2003; RNIB, 2000; Newbold, 1987). Converting information into an accessible format also incurs time and financial costs (refer also: RNIB, 2000) and may mean information is not available when ideally required. Students also report it can be difficult for them to engage in other learning processes such as group work and extra curriculum activity such as field trips. The need to attend specific adaptive technology computer training can also incur costs such as inconvenience and reduced choice on attending mainstream courses.

Students also report physical limitations in the amount of time they can study for. For example, reading for sustained periods may result in excessive tiredness and headaches. One student illustrates this difficulty further:

"My biggest problems were when it came to exam time because for me studying a lot and using my eyes a lot causes headaches... I missed a few exams and had to get consideration for quite a few. It just turned into a

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vicious cycle of trying to study to get ready for the exam, but knowing that I would have a headache because I had studied so much." (Female Youth)

One student also discusses having less choice over where to live, with close proximity to their place of study needing to be the primary consideration in choosing their student accommodation.

6.3 Society Costs - Education Related Subsidies, Services and Benefits

6.3.1 Education Services- Ministry of Education

Special education for blind and vision impaired learners is mainly funded by the Ministry of Education. Special education is "the provision of extra assistance, adapted programmes or learning environments, specialised equipment or materials to support young children and school students with accessing the curriculum in a range of settings" (Ministry of Education, 2003). General funding comes from the Group Special Education division.

Development of current special education policy has been driven by two transitional periods within the education sector - Tomorrow's Schools (1989-1995) and Special Education 2000 (1995-2002). The Special Education Service (SES) was established alongside Tomorrow's Schools as an independent crown entity contracted to the Ministry of Education. The main role of SES was to provide "advice, guidance and support for the benefit of people under 21 with difficulties in learning development". Specific policy strategies aimed to "achieve a world class inclusive education system that provides learning opportunities of equal quality to all students". This strategy encouraged schooling children with special education needs at their local schools and for education decisions to be made by local stakeholders.

Under the current policy, students with minimal to moderate needs receive funding from the Moderate Needs Scheme. Funds are allocated to mainstream schools taking into account the school setting, resources and capabilities. Learners with severe vision impairment or blindness receive funding from the Ongoing and Reviewable Resourcing Scheme (ORRS). Children with multiple disabilities whose vision affects their ability to learn and who have other challenges associated with their disabilities are also eligible for funding through the ORRS scheme.

ORRS funds children requiring additional support while at school. Eligible children are entitled to receive specialist intervention and support including: specialist therapy support, paraprofessional support and additional funding for small items. There are two levels of eligibility criteria - Very High and High. The difference between the two levels is determined by needs for specialist involvement in educational programmes.

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For vision impaired students the difference between the two ORRS criteria is that children with Very High requirements need special assistance in all face to face communications (e.g. Braille acquisition skills) and children with High needs may need significantly adapted teaching methods provided by specialist teachers. Most students with low vision are likely to be eligible for High ORRS funding at the least, and the support allocated to each student is based on the student's current Individual Education Programme (IEP) which has been collaboratively agreed by parents/caregivers, the school and the fund holder.

6.3.2 Vision Education Agency (VEA)

The Vision Education Agency is an independent organisation that researches and provides information about the educational needs of blind and vision impaired students. The purpose of the agency is to ensure the advancement and effectiveness of education services to blind and vision impaired students through collaboration with the Ministry of Education, parents, students and other organisations within the blind and vision impaired community.

The organisation was formally established in 1999 as a Charitable Trust with the Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind. The VEA board has up to nine members representing the voices of the New Zealand Association of Teachers with Vision Impairment, RNZFB, Association of Blind Citizens, Tangata whenua, and parents.

6.3.3 Homai National School for the Blind and Vision Impaired

(4)

Homai College was established in Manurewa in 1965 by RNZFB. In 2000 the school became a state residential special school with its own elected Board of Trustees and changed its name to Homai National School for the Blind and Vision impaired.

Homai education programmes have input from specialists such as Occupational Therapists, Physiotherapists, Speech-Language Therapists, Music Therapists, Orientation and Mobility Instructors, and Recreation Specialists. Specialists work closely with teachers to support students IEPs. Each student has an IEP including relevant areas from the expanded core curriculum in conjunction with essential education skills from the national curriculum.

Additionally, Homai co-ordinates the Education for Living (EFL) and Kick Start programmes. The EFL programme began in 1992 to provide young adults (14-21 year olds) with the skills for living as full a life as possible within their homes and communities. The Kick Start programme is a residential programme for 17-21 year olds which aims to develop skills in the following areas: social, daily living, recreation, independence, management of finances, vocational, tertiary training, organisation, special interests and orientation and mobility.

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Homai also provides an Assessment/Training Service from birth to 21 years for young people who have or are suspected of having a vision impairment. The data enables informed decisions to be made concerning future placement, programme and resource requirements for each individual. This service provides educational training for parents, teachers and other professionals.

There are usually around 95 students attending Homai, including students attending the Kick Start programme and preschoolers attending the Early Childhood centre. There are 40 residential students living on site. The Ministry of Education funds student accommodation and travel costs connected with staying at the residential facility at Homai.

In 2002, only 14% of blind and vision impaired students attended special education schools such as Homai National School for the Blind and Vision impaired (RNZFB, 2003). It is estimated that approximately $17m per annum is spent supporting blind and vision impaired students within mainstream schools (RNZFB, 2003).

6.3.4 Visual Resource Centres (VRCs) and Resource Teacher Vision (RTVs)

There are 12 Visual and Sensory Resource Centres based in New Zealand's cities. Each centre employs Resource Teachers - Vision (RTVs) to serve their region as itinerant teachers. The teachers support children at all levels, from preschool through primary to secondary schools. Teachers also assist parents and mainstream staff in understanding the "functional implications of blindness and vision impairment through their regular contact and modelling of appropriate teaching strategies" (ERO, 2003).

6.3.5 Tertiary Education Support

New Zealand tertiary institutions have disability support offices, providing staff, resources and equipment for all students with disabilities. The Tertiary Education Commission monitors the number of students with disabilities at each institution, however funding for operating disability support services is based on the total number of students (with and without disabilities) at the institution. In 2004 the rate of $32.18 per equivalent full time student will be paid to each institution. This funding covers provision of services to all students with disabilities and each individual office decides how to spend its money based on the composition of students and the most important services or equipment required.

There are scholarships available for students with disabilities and specifically for blind and vision impaired students. The Ministry of Education also provides Supplementary Student Grants to assist students with disability related expenses. The Invalid's Benefit (Blindness) also provides a positive work incentive.

Disability offices may provide the following services to blind and vision impaired students: study spaces, computers with vision impairment technology, assistance with choosing courses and departmental liaison. The University of Auckland liaises with RNZFB to

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provide orientation and mobility sessions for new students. This involves showing students around campus to places that they will frequently use, such as lecture rooms, the library, cafeterias and the disability support office.

Tertiary institutions will be responsible for accessible format production from 2004 onwards. This may include transferring academic texts and lecture notes into electronic versions compatible with screen readers, audio recording, enlarged print or Braille. The University of Auckland has been providing this service since 1996, with the exception of Braille, however many students criticise the length of time it takes to convert academic texts into accessible format. Some students have not received accessible format versions of academic texts until after their exams have been sat at the end of the course paper. While The University of Auckland is endeavouring to streamline this process, it is likely that tertiary institutions undertaking this task for the first time will initially share the same experiences.

6.3.6 Tertiary Education Commission

The Tertiary Education Commission is currently in transition, as a result of which information about the number of blind and vision impaired tertiary students and the level of funding is unavailable (please see separate document 'Data Collection Issues Encountered During the RNZFB Cost of Blindness Research').

Nevertheless, institutions will receive a disability allowance for every equivalent full time student in 2004 of $32.18 to provide services for disabled students. The Ministry of Education publishes information about the number of domestic tertiary students from 1999 to 2003. The average rate of annual growth was 5%, implying that there will be approximately 274,000 domestic tertiary students. Therefore total funding for disability services will be approximately $9m. The value of funding directly attributed to blind and vision impaired students is much smaller than this value however, as all disabled students' needs are met with this funding.

The number of blind and vision impaired tertiary students nationally is unknown, although the Foundation reports providing assistance to 61 students over the last two years. Examples of support provided by particular tertiary institutions include access to study spaces for disabled students, print to electronic text services, CCTVs, scanners, access to JAWS, access to Zoomtext or Supernova, library and research assistance, readers as required, and Brailled examination papers. These services were paid for by the funding from the Tertiary Education Commission.

6.3.7 Support and Assistance Received

Eighty five percent of students surveyed require some form of additional assistance in order to complete the requirements of their study. All blind students require assistance and 75% of students who are vision impaired require assistance.

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People identified as providing assistance are most commonly society (5) helpers (96%), for example, disability support people provided by the educational institution attended (6). On average, these helpers are identified as providing 784 minutes of assistance each week. Of all the helpers identified, 78% are paid, with the cost classified as totally borne by society (7).

Table 10 presents a total financial cost for blind and vision impaired students in relation to education and training; this includes the cost of travelling to and from place of study and the cost of society support and assistance, the latter being the clear cost area. The total financial cost estimated is $5,482,000 based on a blind and vision impaired student population estimate of 850.

Table 10: Annual Education related financial costs, to the individual and society (blind and vision impaired student estimate)

6.3.8 Summary of Education Costs

Costs of Blindness experienced in the educational setting cannot be accounted for beyond the responses and data provided by respondents to the RNZFB Costs of Blindness survey. This is because information on the number of students within the New Zealand education system was unavailable. This means that unlike other cost areas, the population base estimate provided is specific to the figure of 850, estimated using information from the VEA and Disability Support Services at The University of Auckland.

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Summary Table 11: Annual Education related cost, to the individual and society (blind and vision impaired student population estimate)

Footnotes

4. Now part of BLENNZ: Blind & Low Vision Education Network NZ, Te Kōtuituinga Mātauranga Pura o Aotearoa.

5. Defined to include: support person employed by education institution, government agency, respondent or family; fellow student; flat-mate; friend; neighbour; volunteer.

6. Responses indicate that respondents generally did not consider assistance received beyond the classroom or education institution situation. Because of this, assistance received from family members is under reported.

7. Defined to include: education institution (e.g. university/polytech) and government agency (e.g. WINZ, ACC, Ministry of Education).

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